Formic acid can be produced by the oxidation of methanol in the presence of a catalyst, such as copper or silver. The reaction takes place in a reactor with air or oxygen as the oxidant. The resulting mixture is then purified by distillation and acidification.

Cyclohexanone is used as a solvent in degreasers for automotive applications and cleaners. It is known for its excellent solvency, which makes it useful for removing grease, oil, and other contaminants from metal parts and surfaces. In addition to its use in automotive degreasers, cyclohexanone is also commonly used in other industrial cleaning applications, as well as in the production of resins, plastics, and synthetic fibers. It is also a relatively low-toxicity solvent, making it a safer alternative to other solvents such as trichloroethylene.

Butyl Carbitol, also known as 2-Butoxyethanol, is a solvent that is typically produced by the reaction of ethylene oxide and butanol in the presence of an acidic catalyst. The reaction results in the formation of 2-butoxyethanol and butyl Cellosolve, which is then purified and blended to form Butyl Carbitol. Butyl Carbitol is known for its solvency power, low volatility, and low toxicity.

Adipic acid is typically manufactured through a multi-step process that involves the oxidation of cyclohexanol. The process includes the following steps:

• Cyclohexanol oxidation to produce cyclohexanone, which is then further oxidized to produce cyclohexenoic acid.
• Cyclohexenoic acid esterification to produce adipic acid ester.
• Adipic acid hydrolysis to produce adipic acid.
• The adipic acid is then purified through distillation and crystallization to obtain a high-purity product.

Benzyl alcohol is typically manufactured through the alkylation of toluene or benzaldehyde with sodium/potassium hydroxide or sodium/potassium benzylate in the presence of an alkylation catalyst. This reaction forms benzyl alcohol as the primary product, along with small amounts of by-products such as benzyl chloride and benzalphenone. Another method involves the reduction of benzyl chloride or benzotrichloride using hydrogen gas in the presence of a metal catalyst such as palladium or platinum.

The word ‘acetic’ is derived from a Latin word called ‘acetum’ meaning ‘vinegar’. In the food industry, it is obtained in the process of acetic fermentation of ethanol, i.e. in the process of alcoholic fermentation. Vinegar is the dilute form of acetic acid and is the most common chemical substance among people. Acetic acid is the second simplest carboxylic acid after formic acid. Acetic acid is also known as ethanoic acid, ethylic acid, vinegar acid, and methane carboxylic acid.

The cumene process is the most widely used method for the commercial production of phenol.

• In the first step of the cumene process, benzene and propylene are reacted in the presence of an acid catalyst (usually phosphoric acid) to produce cumene.
• Next, cumene is oxidized using air or oxygen at high temperature and pressure in the presence of a metal catalyst (usually chromium or cobalt) to produce cumene hydroperoxide.
• The cumene hydroperoxide is then cleaved using sulfuric acid to produce phenol and acetone as byproducts.
• The phenol and acetone are then separated by distillation, with acetone being used as a valuable co-product in various industrial processes.

Nitric acid is typically produced by the oxidation of ammonia (NH3) in the presence of a catalyst. There are several methods for manufacturing nitric acid, but the most common process is known as the Ostwald process, which consists of the following steps: Oxidation of ammonia: Ammonia is oxidized using a platinum-rhodium catalyst at a temperature of 850-1000°C and a pressure of 8-12 atm. The reaction produces nitric oxide (NO) and water vapor:

 NH₃ + O₂ → NO + H₂O

Oxidation of nitric oxide: Nitric oxide is further oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the presence of air:

 2NO + O₂ → 2NO₂     

Absorption of nitrogen dioxide: Nitrogen dioxide is absorbed into water to form nitric acid (HNO3) and nitric oxide:

3NO₂ + H₂O → 2HNO3 + NO

Recovery of nitrogen oxide: The nitric oxide produced in step 3 is recycled back to step 1 to oxidize more ammonia.

4NH3+ 5O₂ + 4H₂O → 4HNO3 + NO

• The hydrogenation of anthraquinone is the first step in the production of hydrogen peroxide. Anthraquinone is a yellow crystalline compound derived from coal tar. In the presence of a catalyst, hydrogen gas is passed over anthraquinone to form dihydroanthraquinone.
• After that, the dihydroanthraquinone is oxidised with air or oxygen to produce hydrogen peroxide. This reaction is typically carried out in a series of reactors containing a dihydroanthraquinone solution in an organic solvent.

Hydrazine hydrate is typically manufactured by the Raschig process, which involves the reaction of sodium hypochlorite with ammonia in the presence of a reducing agent. The process is typically carried out in a reactor vessel with stirring and cooling.

• Chlorine gas is bubbled through a solution of sodium hydroxide to produce sodium hypochlorite.
• Ammonia gas is bubbled into the reactor vessel containing the sodium hypochlorite solution, and the mixture is stirred.
• A reducing agent, such as hydrogen peroxide, is added to the mixture to help drive the reaction and prevent the formation of unwanted byproducts.
• The mixture is allowed to react for a period of time, during which hydrazine hydrate is formed.
• The reaction mixture is then filtered to remove any solids, and the hydrazine hydrate solution is purified using distillation or other methods.

Poly Aluminium Chloride (PAC) is typically manufactured by two methods: the high basicity process and the direct process.

• High basicity process: Aluminum hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are employed as raw ingredients in this procedure. To create a solution, aluminium hydroxide is first dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The degree of polymerization is then increased by heating and stirring the solution. A high basicity PAC that has a higher level of polymerization and a higher charge density than PAC made using the direct approach is the end result.
• Direct process: Calcium carbonate, hydrochloric acid, and aluminium hydroxide are used as raw ingredients in this procedure. To create a solution, aluminium hydroxide is first dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The solution is then given a dose of calcium carbonate, which raises pH and encourages PAC production. A PAC with a lower degree of polymerization and a lower charge density than PAC made using the high basicity technique is the end result.

Citric acid is typically produced through a fermentation process. This method employs the use of a microorganism, such as Aspergillus niger, which converts sugars like glucose or sucrose into citric acid. The process is typically carried out in large stainless steel tanks under temperature and pH control. The resulting solution is then purified, concentrated, and dried to yield powdered citric acid. Chemical synthesis is another method for producing citric acid, but it is not widely used due to its high cost and lower yields when compared to fermentation.

Formation of caustic soda:

• Sodium chloride is dissolved in water to create a brine solution.
• The brine solution is passed through a cell that contains two electrodes, typically made of graphite or titanium. When an electrical current is passed through the solution, the sodium ions (Na+) move towards the negative electrode (cathode) and the chloride ions (Cl-) move towards the positive electrode (anode).
• At the cathode, the sodium ions combine with hydroxide ions (OH-) to form sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is also known as caustic soda.
• The caustic soda is then removed from the cell, filtered, and purified to remove any impurities. The final product is a white solid that can be formed into flakes or pearls.

Caustic potash flakes are manufactured through a process called electrolysis, in which an electric current is passed through a solution of potassium chloride (KCl) to produce potassium hydroxide (KOH) and chlorine gas. The KOH produced is then dried and flaked to form caustic potash flakes. The process is typically carried out in large, stainless steel cells and involves carefully controlling the temperature and concentration of the KCl solution to optimize the yield of KOH and minimize the production of by-products.

Propylene glycol (PG) is manufactured on an industrial scale by two main processes:  Hydrolysis of propylene oxide: In this process, propylene oxide is hydrolyzed with water to form propylene glycol and a small amount of propylene glycol ethers. The reaction is usually carried out in the presence of a catalyst, such as sulfuric acid, and at elevated temperatures and pressures. Hydration of propylene oxide: In this process, propylene oxide is hydrated with water in the presence of a catalyst, such as phosphoric acid or ion exchange resins, to form propylene glycol. The reaction is carried out at high temperatures and pressures.

Ortho-xylene (o-xylene) is primarily produced by the catalytic reforming of petroleum naphtha or reformate, which is a mixture of hydrocarbons with 6 to 10 carbon atoms.

The standard method for producing N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) is a process known as amination, which entails the interaction of an aldehyde or ketone with ammonia and a reducing agent. An outline of the production process is provided below: Preparation of 2-pyrrolidone: 2-pyrrolidone is typically prepared by the reaction of gamma-butyrolactone with ammonia or an amine in the presence of a catalyst. The reaction produces 2-pyrrolidone as well as some byproducts. Methylation of 2-pyrrolidone: 2-pyrrolidone is then methylated with methyl iodide or dimethyl sulfate in the presence of a base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium carbonate. The reaction produces N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone and a salt byproduct. Purification: The crude NMP is then purified through a distillation process to remove impurities and byproducts.

N-Heptane can be manufactured through several processes, including crude oil refining and fractional distillation.  Refining: Crude oil contains various hydrocarbons, including n-heptane, which can be separated from other components through refining processes such as distillation, cracking, and hydrotreating. Fractional distillation: N-Heptane can be isolated from a mixture of hydrocarbons through fractional distillation, which separates components based on their boiling points. The process involves heating the mixture in a distillation column and collecting the fraction with a boiling point range of 90-110°C, which corresponds to n-heptane. Isomerization: N-Heptane isomers, such as 2-methylhexane and 3-methylhexane, can be produced through isomerization processes. The process involves converting straight-chain hydrocarbons into branched-chain isomers through catalytic reactions. Alkylation: N-Heptane can be synthesized through the alkylation of butene with ethylene, followed by hydrogenation of the resulting product. This method is less common than the previous ones.

MEK is typically produced via the dehydrogenation of secondary butanol.

• The first step is the dehydrogenation of n-butane to produce 2-butanone (MEK's precursor) and hydrogen gas. This step is usually carried out using a copper chromite catalyst.
• The 2-butanone is then converted to MEK by dehydrogenation. This reaction is typically carried out using a catalyst containing copper and zinc.
• The MEK is then purified through a distillation process to remove any impurities and obtain the desired product.

Isopropyl alcohol (also known as 2-propanol or rubbing alcohol) is typically manufactured through a two-step process:

• Propylene hydration: Propylene, a byproduct of petroleum refining, is first hydrated with water in the presence of a strong acid catalyst (such as sulfuric acid) to form a mixture of isopropyl alcohol and water. The reaction can be represented by the following chemical equation:

C3H6 + H2O -> (CH3)2CHOH + H2O

• Distillation: The resulting mixture of isopropyl alcohol and water is then separated by distillation, where the water and isopropyl alcohol have different boiling points. The mixture is heated and the vapors are condensed and collected at different stages to obtain the desired concentration of isopropyl alcohol.

• Hexane is typically produced from crude oil through fractional distillation, which separates the crude oil into different fractions based on their boiling points.
• The hexane fraction is further purified through refining processes such as hydrotreating, hydrocracking, and catalytic reforming to remove impurities and improve its quality.
• The purified hexane is then subjected to isomerization, a process that converts straight-chain hydrocarbons into branched-chain hydrocarbons. This step is necessary to improve the octane rating of the hexane and increase its usefulness as a solvent.
• The final step involves separating the hexane from other compounds in the mixture by distillation or other separation techniques.

Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is created by reacting dimethyl sulfide with oxygen. The reaction is typically carried out in the presence of a catalyst, such as copper or silver, in a reactor.

Dimethylformamide (DMF) is manufactured through a process known as carbonylation, which involves the reaction of monomethylamine (MMA) with carbon monoxide (CO) in the presence of a metal catalyst. The reaction occurs according to the following equation:

MMA + CO → DMF + H2O

The reaction is typically carried out in a reactor at high pressure and high temperature, with a metal catalyst such as nickel or rhodium. The reaction mixture is then cooled, and the resulting DMF is separated from the catalyst and other by-products by distillation.

Cyclohexane is a cycloalkane, a type of organic compound with a ring structure consisting of six carbon atoms. Cyclohexane is commonly manufactured through a process called the oxidation of cyclohexene. This involves the reaction of cyclohexene with atmospheric oxygen in the presence of a metal catalyst to produce cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone, which can then be hydrogenated to form cyclohexane. The reaction conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and type of catalyst, can be optimized to increase the yield and purity of the final product.

Butyl cellosolve is also known as Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl Ether. Butyl cellosolve is produced through the process of ethoxylation. Ethoxylation is a chemical reaction where ethylene oxide is reacted with an alcohol to form an ethoxylate. In the case of butyl cellosolve, the alcohol used is butanol. The reaction is typically carried out in the presence of an alkaline catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, at elevated temperatures. The resulting product is then purified and distilled to obtain the final product, butyl cellosolve.

Acetone is also called dimethyl ketone, 2-propanone, and beta-ketopropane. Acetone is typically produced through the oxidation of isopropyl alcohol. The most common industrial process for producing acetone is the cumene process, which involves the reaction of phenol and propylene to form cumene, which is then oxidized to produce acetone and phenol. Another common process for producing acetone is the direct oxidation of propylene; the product is then purified through distillation to remove impurities and by-products.

Butyl acetate is usually produced through the esterification reaction between butanol and acetic acid in the presence of an acid catalyst. The reaction typically occurs at a temperature of around 60-70°C and the catalyst used is sulfuric acid. The mixture is then distilled to separate the butyl acetate from the remaining reactants and by-products.Butyl acetate is used as a solvent for various automotive coatings, adhesives, and resins.

The method of making polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is known as hydrolysis, and it entails the reaction of vinyl acetate with water in the presence of a catalyst. The following steps are often included in the process: Polymerization: Vinyl acetate monomer is first polymerized under controlled conditions to produce polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) with a desired degree of polymerization. Hydrolysis: The PVAc is then partially hydrolyzed in the presence of an alkaline catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide, to break some of the ester bonds and replace them with hydroxyl (-OH) groups. This reaction produces PVA, which has varying degrees of hydrolysis depending on the conditions used. Filtration and drying: The PVA is then filtered, washed, and dried to remove any remaining catalyst, unreacted monomer, or impurities.

• Oxidation of carbohydrates: Oxalic acid can be produced by the oxidation of carbohydrates using nitric acid or air in the presence of a catalyst such as vanadium pentoxide. The carbohydrates are first converted to oxalic acid dihydrate, which is then converted to anhydrous oxalic acid by heating.
• Hydrogenation of carbon monoxide: Oxalic acid can be produced by the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel. This method is used commercially to produce oxalic acid.
• Extraction from plants: Oxalic acid can be extracted from certain plants, such as rhubarb and sorrel, which contain high amounts of the acid. The plants are harvested, crushed, and then the oxalic acid is extracted using water or a solvent.
• Byproduct of other processes: Oxalic acid can also be produced as a byproduct of other industrial processes, such as wood pulping and the production of ethylene glycol.

The reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium hydroxide or magnesium oxide is exothermic and can be represented by the following chemical equation:

Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O

The reaction is typically carried out in a reactor vessel equipped with an agitator and temperature control. Magnesium hydroxide or magnesium oxide is slowly added to the hydrochloric acid while stirring and maintaining a controlled temperature. The resulting solution of magnesium chloride in water is then purified, concentrated, and dried to obtain the desired form of solid magnesium chloride.

Formaldehyde 37% is typically manufactured via the oxidation of methanol using a silver catalyst at elevated temperatures and pressures. This process, known as the silver-catalyzed methanol oxidation process, produces a gas stream that is then condensed to form the liquid formaldehyde solution. The solution is stabilized with methanol to prevent further oxidation and ensure it remains at a concentration of 37%.

Ethyl Cellosolve is typically produced by reacting ethylene oxide with ethanol in the presence of a catalyst such as sodium hydroxide or sulfuric acid. This results in the formation of ethyl Cellosolve and water as a byproduct. The mixture is then distilled to purify the Ethyl Cellosolve. Other methods, such as the reaction of ethylene glycol with ethanol, can also be used to produce Ethyl Cellosolve.

Ethyl acetate is typically manufactured through the reaction of ethanol and acetic acid in the presence of an acid catalyst. The reaction can be summarized by the following equation:

CH3COOH + C2H5OH → C4H8O2 + H2O

The reaction typically takes place at a temperature of around 50-60°C and a pressure of 1-2 atmospheres. The acid catalyst used is usually sulfuric acid or another strong mineral acid. After the reaction is complete, the ethyl acetate is separated from the reaction mixture by distillation. The distillate is then purified through further distillation to remove any residual water and other impurities.

The process of manufacturing DEG involves the following steps:

• Ethylene oxide is synthesized by the reaction of ethylene and oxygen over a silver catalyst. The reaction is performed at high temperature and pressure in the presence of a solvent.
• Ethylene oxide is then hydrogenated to form ethylene glycol, which is the first step in the manufacture of DEG.
• Ethylene glycol is then hydrated to form DEG by the addition of water. This reaction is typically performed in the presence of an acid catalyst.
• The DEG produced from the hydration reaction is then purified by distillation to remove impurities. The purified DEG is then ready for use as a raw material for the production of a wide range of products, including polyester resins, solvents, and antifreeze solutions